The "No Vacancy Inn" - A Fanciful Interpretation

Allow this clip from the well-beloved, very flawed "Nativity Story"refresh your memory regarding one of the world's best known narratives. (See especially from 6:13-8:15)


But did it really go down like that?

Originally published 3/16/10.

No where in Luke 2 does it imply that Mary, the mother of the Messiah, went into labor on the way to Bethlehem - in fact the passage suggests quite the opposite. 

“And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the town of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child. And while they were there, the time came for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her firstborn son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn.”
(Luke 2:4–7 ESV)

We often assume that because "there was no place for them in the inn" then the labor must have been hurried - it's like we are trying to make a Lifetime special out of the first Advent.  Even if the line "no place for them in the inn" is a correct translation, which is highly suspect, there is no reason to believe that Mary was about to "bring forth" as she reached the hometown of King David.  The line "And while they were there, the time came for her to give birth" makes it abundantly clear that there was a sequence of events at work here.  The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem, an unknown length of time in which Mary and Joseph settled in before the birth of the King, and finally the birth of the Firstfruits of God. 
Moreover, the Greek phrase underlying "no place for them in the inn" should be read "no place for them in the guest room." The word kataluma is only used two other times in the New Testament and in both cases it is referring to the same event - Jesus telling his disciples to go and secure the room for the Last Supper.

“And tell the master of the house, ‘The Teacher says to you, Where is the guest room, where I may eat the Passover with my disciples?’ (Luke 22:11 ESV see also Mark 14:14).

The translation "guest room" eliminates any need for a hurried delivery on Mary's part or any amount of desperate consternation upon Joseph the soon-to-be father.  Beyond that, this translation is much more fitting with the cultural context of the story - Mary and Joseph, Judeans of Davidic origin, would have had family members living in Bethlehem who would have been more than happy to host the expecting parents (remember how Mary stayed with her cousin Elizabeth 6 months earlier - somewhere around Jerusalem only 5 miles from Bethlehem).  However, due to the overcrowding caused by the census guest rooms were full so they had to move their extended family to other rooms in the home - the next candidate would be the stable (which were almost exclusively built into the homes since the livestock of the family was an integral part of its livelihood, as well as acting as a free furnace during cold months).

This reconstruction then means that Mary came to Bethlehem towards the end of her pregnancy, but not to the point where she would give birth as soon as she got there. (Seriously why would Mary and Joseph do this?  It's not like they did not know when the census was supposed to be - Rome worked on a rigorous schedule, it's no coincidence that the modern calendar has it's foundations in the Roman one.  Mary and Joseph would have had to have been extremely irresponsible or just plain naive to wait until the last minute.)  When they arrived in the ancestral home of their fathers they stayed with family (most likely extended as their immediate family was in Nazareth) whose guest room had already been filled by other extended family - thus they were put in the next likeliest location - the stable where the God/Man was born and placed in a stone manger.

Let us cast aside the traditional fanciful interpretation of the advent of our Lord - the actual story of his condescending and taking flesh is humble enough - let us not go beyond the Bible in our attempts to steep lowliness upon the shoulders of the Lord.  Let us add the myth of the "no-vacancy inn" to the myth that the "three kings" were present at the manger - perhaps they can stay in this mythical inn during their alleged visit to the manger.

John's Ultimate Irony

Worldwide Perspective: The Creator was/is unknown by those who had been created to find their pleasure in him.

The true light, which enlightens everyone, was coming into the world.  He was in the world, and the world was made through him, yet the world did not know him.  (John 1:9-10)

1st Century/Jewish Perspective: Yahweh's chosen king, high-priest, prophet (i.e. Messiah) was/is unrecognized by those who had been chosen to be "a Kingdom of Priests" (Exodus 19:5-6).

He came to his own, and his own people did not receive him. (John 1:11) 

Despite humanity's debased ignorance and Israel's woeful lack of perception the "true light" still offers  the ultimate truth to the ignorant and the imperceptive alike - new birth.  A birth that rectifies the general failure of mankind and the specific failure of Israel.

But to all who did receive him, who believe in his name, he gave the right to become children of God, who were born, not of blood nor of the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but of God.  (John 1:12-13)

All of this is because the imposing, seemingly all-powerful "darkness" that brought ignorance and lack of perception met its absolute Kryptonite counterpart - the "Light."

The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it. (John 1:5)

Some Thoughts on Revelation 1-3

In church last Saturday (yes that's the only weekend-day in Israel) we discussed the seven churches of the Revelation.  All in all it was a solid sermon that discussed the various churches of Asia Minor - highlighting their strengths and weaknesses while discussing and hoping to prevent our own.  I always enjoy good, text-based sermons on the Revelation, because of its vast richness and imagery. As I was sitting in my chair attentively listening to the sermon I noticed a few things in King Jesus' proclamation that I had never picked up on before.  Here is one of them.

The High Priest in His Real Sanctuary (Rev. 1:12-15)

Many preachers and expositors have noted the similarity between Christ's figure in Rev. 1:12-15 and the figure of an unidentified person in Dan. 10:5-6.  Some even go so far as to say that this striking similarity indicates that the person in Daniel is none other than the pre-incarnated Lord Jesus.  Personally, I think that is a bit of a stretch mainly due to the fact that the identification of the character of Dan. 10:5-6 is later revealed as an angel who was held up by the "Prince of Persia."  Even if one were to say that the person of Dan. 10:5-6 was a different person than the "he" that comforts and speaks to Daniel that would mean that the person of Dan. 10:5-6 failed in delivering the message to Daniel and needed another angel (Gabriel?) to step in, which of course would again argue that the person is not Christ.  Nevertheless, John/the Holy Spirit through the vision of the Christ is for sure picking up on this similarity of appearance to make a distinct connection between the apocalyptic prophecies of Daniel and the coming Revelation.  Note the following similarities:

"a man clothed in linen, with a belt of fine gold from Uphaz around his waist. His body was like beryl, his face like the appearance of lightning, his eyes like flaming torches, his arms and legs like the gleam of burnished bronze, and the sound of his words like the sound of a multitude." (Daniel 10:5-6 ESV)


“Then I turned to see the voice that was speaking to me, and on turning I saw seven golden lampstands, and in the midst of the lampstands one like a son of man, clothed with a long robe and with a golden sash around his chest. The hairs of his head were white, like white wool, like snow. His eyes were like a flame of fire, his feet were like burnished bronze, refined in a furnace, and his voice was like the roar of many waters.” (Revelation 1:12–15 ESV)


This Daniel connection is clear, but could there be more at work than just a textual connection?  Maybe.  Could it be that Jesus was revealing himself to John in his Melchizedekian, priestly garments (vs. the earlier prescribed Aaronic garments) in the midst of his "real" sanctuary?  Definitely the book of Hebrews was in existence during the time of John's vision (95-96 AD - Hebrews was written pre-70 AD) and would have been known by the apostle "whom Jesus loved."  Unconvinced? Consider these passages.

“You shall speak to all the skillful, whom I have filled with a spirit of skill, that they make Aaron’s garments to consecrate him for my priesthood. These are the garments that they shall make: a breastpiece, an ephod, a robe, a coat of checker work, a turban, and a sash. They shall make holy garments for Aaron your brother and his sons to serve me as priests. They shall receive gold, blue and purple and scarlet yarns, and fine twined linen.” (Exodus 28:3–5 ESV)

My own very meager attempt at reproducing the high priestly garments based on Exodus 28.  Yes, I am aware that my high priest's body shape is "formless and void."

“For it is evident that our Lord was descended from Judah, and in connection with that tribe Moses said nothing about priests. This becomes even more evident when another priest arises in the likeness of Melchizedek, who has become a priest, not on the basis of a legal requirement concerning bodily descent, but by the power of an indestructible life. For it is witnessed of him, “You are a priest forever, after the order of Melchizedek.” For on the one hand, a former commandment is set aside because of its weakness and uselessness (for the law made nothing perfect); but on the other hand, a better hope is introduced, through which we draw near to God.” (Hebrews 7:14–19 ESV)

“Now the point in what we are saying is this: we have such a high priest, one who is seated at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven, a minister in the holy places, in the true tent that the Lord set up, not man. For every high priest is appointed to offer gifts and sacrifices; thus it is necessary for this priest also to have something to offer. Now if he were on earth, he would not be a priest at all, since there are priests who offer gifts according to the law. They serve a copy and shadow of the heavenly things. For when Moses was about to erect the tent, he was instructed by God, saying, “See that you make everything according to the pattern that was shown you on the mountain.” But as it is, Christ has obtained a ministry that is as much more excellent than the old as the covenant he mediates is better, since it is enacted on better promises. For if that first covenant had been faultless, there would have been no occasion to look for a second.” (Hebrews 8:1–7 ESV)

These passages show the existence of a heavenly "real" sanctuary, but what might that sanctuary look like? Moses gave the Israelites a "type" tabernacle through the decrees of Torah, but he was only able to re-construct it based on the vision he saw on Mt. Sinai.  Among other things this tabernacle included a seven-branched lampstand (known as the menorah popularized by the holiday of Chanukah and the arch of Titus in Rome).

Tabernacle model in Timnah Valley, Israel 1:1 model - highly recommend going for a visit.

Seven-branched lampstand (also known as a Menorah or a candelabrum) also inside Timnah's model.  Their depiction of the high priest garments are in the upper right of the photo.

Where is the impressively dressed King Jesus in the Revelation 1 passage? "In the midst of the (seven golden) lampstands." Could these lampstands be what Moses saw and tried to duplicate in the menorah?  It is important to note that the term "lampstand" in the Bible is only used in conjunction with the tabernacle/temple precinct (save one reference in Daniel 5:5 - but there it is talking about a lampstand in Belshazar's palace).  The lampstand is inexorably tied to the tabernacle/temple - why should that connection stop in Revelation?  Conversely, it is true that Rev. 1:20 says that the seven golden lampstands represent the seven churches of Asia Minor, but that does not exclude them from having further meaning or further inter-text relatedness.  It is my opinion that Revelation 1 is presenting a picture of the resurrected Christ that is a witness both to his coming judgment on the world (Daniel connection, which will be further expounded upon in Rev. 4-21) and his covenant, high priestly mediation for his beleaguered and persecuted church (Hebrew/Melchizedekian connection which covers Rev. 1-3).

Hippus: A City on a Hill?

During Jesus' Galilean ministry he delivered perhaps the world's most influential sermon - dubbed the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5-7; Luke 12).  In this sermon the greatest rabbi and theologian asks His hearers to weigh their actions against Torah - removing the already difficult standard of the righteousness of the elite and replacing it with faithful obedience.  The teaching delves deeply into the conscience of its hearers by teaching wisdom through everyday occurrences.  Jesus the consummate teacher and illustrator as He often did, once again, used the 1st-century Galilean sites and sounds of his surroundings to portray His timeless and boundless truths.  Among the many illustrations, the King of the Universe compares the manner of a believer's obedient life to a "city set on a hill that cannot be hidden” (Matthew 5:14b ESV) hmmmm....  Interesting - more on that later.

I think it is important to note that Jesus taught almost exclusively outdoors and the majority of the time in Galilee both among and to farmers and fishermen.  He knew the realities each faced in this complex, eclectic region.  Consider the following map:

Notice the three big regions.  Galilee was ruled by Herod Antipas (Herod the Great's son) with his capital in Tiberias it was primarily Jewish with cities like Capernaum and Chorazin on the western half of the Lake.  The Tetrarchy of Philip - most of which was in modern Syria and the Golan Heights.  Philip had a very small sliver of the lake where Philip (also the son of Herod the Great) established the city of Julia - his populace was a mix of Jew and Gentile.  The eastern half was under direct Roman rule with the free city-states of the Decapolis (literally 10 cities - although it was more than that - this would be cities like Gadera, Gerasa, Scytholpolis and Hippus). This region was almost exclusively Gentile. The casting out of demons into swine Matt. 8:30 happened in this region.  All three of these regions would have their own governmental (read taxation) system and radically different diets.  One can easily imagine the Jewish fishermen selling the non-kosher fish to their Gentile neighbors in an attempt to sell all of their catch.  It was within this cultural context that the Son of God was revealed and eloquently interacted.  

I say all of that to make one observation from the Sermon on the Mount.  I will do so in the form of a question.

Is it possible that Jesus was referring to an actual city when he said “You are the light of the world. A city set on a hill cannot be hidden?"   I think he may have been - examine the following images.

This is a view of the traditional location of the Mt. of Beattitudes (likely its a small hill between Capernaum and Tabgha) looking southeast at Hippus - the only major city sitting on a hill during the time of Jesus in the vicinity.

Hippus/Susita (horse) named such because the city resembled a horse's head as it sits alone connected to the Golan Heights by a small spur line.

View from the east looking west across the Sea of Galilee to the Plain of Gennesaret and Tiberias.  Looking at the back of the head of a very schematic horse (with no mane or ears of course).

Would it have been shining?  Probably not Thomas Edison would not be born until about 20 centuries later, but Hippus would have had large tall Roman buildings like these (remains are a little later but are indicative of the city) made out of white limestone shining in the hot Galilean sunshine.  The Decapolis city could have easily been seen from all locations around the Lake, as the hill can still be readily spotted today. 

More or less the same view as the first one.  Clearly Hippus could have easily been seen by Jesus' audience. (all images Google Earth and Mindy McKinny).

 It could be that Jesus not only pointed to Hippus (or maybe shrugged his head there emphatically) when he referred to a "city on a hill that cannot be hidden," but he also looked to the eastern shore later in his message when he said the following: “Do not give dogs what is holy, and do not throw your pearls before pigs, lest they trample them underfoot and turn to attack you.” (Matthew 7:6 ESV)  Pigs would have been found in abundance on the eastern shore (remember Matt. 8:30) and would have been very scarce on the Jewish western shore from where Jesus was speaking.  

In the end this argumentation cannot be proven - it is difficult enough to uncover the meaning of texts -  all the more difficult to discern a speaker's thoughts and unrecorded actions.  Regardless, I believe interacting with the text geographically provides it with a certain realness that it might not have otherwise.  Most believers believe the Bible is inerrant (free from error), but sometimes we forget that its people lived in a real place, in a real time, with real geographicall realities.

The "NO VACANCY Inn" and Mary's Hurried Delivery - a Fanciful Interpretation

Nowhere in Luke 2 does it imply that Mary, the mother of the Messiah, went into labor on the way to Bethlehem - in fact the passage suggests quite the opposite. 

“And Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the town of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed, who was with child. And while they were there, the time came for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her firstborn son and wrapped him in swaddling cloths and laid him in a manger, because there was no place for them in the inn.”
(Luke 2:4–7 ESV)

We often assume that because "there was no place for them in the inn" then the labor must have been hurried - it's like we are trying to make a Lifetime special out of the first Advent.  Even if the line "no place for them in the inn" is a correct translation, which is highly suspect, there is no reason to believe that Mary was about to "bring forth" as she reached the hometown of King David.  The line "And while they were there, the time came for her to give birth" makes it abundantly clear that there was a sequence of events at work here.  The journey from Nazareth to Bethlehem, an unknown length of time in which Mary and Joseph settled in before the birth of the King, and finally the birth of the Firstfruits of God. 
Moreover, the Greek phrase underlying "no place for them in the inn" should be read "no place for them in the guest room." The word kataluma is only used two other times in the New Testament and in both cases it is referring to the same event - Jesus telling his disciples to go and secure the room for the Last Supper.

“And tell the master of the house, ‘The Teacher says to you, Where is the guest room, where I may eat the Passover with my disciples?’ (Luke 22:11 ESV see also Mark 14:14).

The translation "guest room" eliminates any need for a hurried delivery on Mary's part or any amount of desperate consternation upon Joseph the soon-to-be father.  Beyond that this translation is much more fitting with the cultural context of the story - Mary and Joseph, Judeans of Davidic origin, would have had family members living in Bethlehem who would have been more than happy to host the expecting parents (remember how Mary stayed with her cousin Elizabeth 6 months earlier - somewhere around Jerusalem only 5 miles from Bethlehem).  However, due to the overcrowding caused by the census guest rooms were full so they had to move their extended family to other rooms in the home - the next candidate would be the stable (which were almost exclusively built into the homes since the livestock of the family was an integral part of its livelihood, as well as acting as a free furnace during cold months).

This reconstruction then means that Mary came to Bethlehem towards the end of her pregnancy, but not to the point where she would give birth as soon as she got there. (Seriously why would Mary and Joseph do this?  It's not like they did not know when the census was supposed to be - Rome worked on a rigorous schedule, it's no coincidence that the modern calendar has it's foundations in the Roman one.  Mary and Joseph would have had to have been extremely irresponsible or just plain naive to wait until the last minute.)  When they arrived in the ancestral home of their fathers they stayed with family (most likely extended as their immediate family was in Nazareth) whose guest room had already been filled by other extended family - thus they were put in the next likeliest location - the stable where the God/Man was born and placed in a stone manger.

Let us cast aside the traditional fanciful interpretation of the advent of our Lord - the actual story of his condescending and taking flesh is humble enough - let us not go beyond the Bible in our attempts to steep lowliness upon the shoulders of the Lord.  Let us add the myth of the "no-vacancy inn" to the myth that the "three kings" were present at the manger - perhaps they can stay in this mythical inn during their alleged visit to the manger.

Pilate the Cowardly Murderer

Sometimes we empathize with the actions of Pontius Pilate - seeing the difficult situation he was put in, acknowledging that it was not he who plotted out Christ's death, and recognizing that he understood the Lord of Glory to be innocent.  While all of these things are true - that does not excuse Pilate's ploy to punish Christ with flogging nor his verdict to murder the Culmination of all Innocence.  He had the power to do the right thing, the power to act judiciously, but chose not to.  Pilate was a coward whose cowardice caused him to be a murderer.  What makes his murdering cowardice all the more appalling are his thoughts.

“So when they had gathered, Pilate said to them, “Whom do you want me to release for you: Barabbas, or Jesus who is called Christ?” For he knew that it was out of envy that they had delivered him up."

Even worse than his conscience condemning him is the fact that his own wife's conscience was pricked and supernaturally warned.

"Besides, while he was sitting on the judgment seat, his wife sent word to him, “Have nothing to do with that righteous man, for I have suffered much because of him today in a dream.”
(Matthew 27:17–19 ESV)

See painting's bibliography here.

Despite this Pilate still murdered - butchered the Wisdom of God.  His attempt to wash his hands of the situation is laughable since his approval, and his approval alone (from a human, judicial perspective) allowed the Light of the World to be crucified.

Alive King Jesus - Dead King Herod

There are many interesting aspects about the Biblical story - many fascinating tidbits that can only be gleaned by being in the land and seeing and experiencing how the land fits together.  Here is one of my favorites.

As King Jesus made his way up and over the Mt. of Olives, while the deafening throng erupted with shouts of Hosannah, the coronation of the true king of Israel finally was realized.

Imagine the amount of conflicting emotions the Lord experienced - joy, fear, anxiety, foreboding, and quite possibly irony.   The tomb of Herod the Great (or at least Herodium where the tomb was) could be seen quite clearly from the route the King of Kings took on his way to Jerusalem.  It's quite probable that Jesus looked to his left, towards the Judean Wilderness and the Dead Sea, and saw the tomb of the jealous "king" who once sought to have Him murdered by killing the babies of David's city - the king who claimed to be the true king of the Jews now rotting in an illustrious tomb unloved and still posthumously trying not to be forgotten.  Jesus was about to show Israel and the whole world what true kingship was all about.

The Growth of Herod's Kingdom

Recently I had to write a paper on the Kingdom of Herod the Great. I have always been very interested in the person of Herod, he is one of those enigmatic characters that you cannot seem to grasp in your mind. In the study of his life should we pull for him or hate him? He is like that eccentric bad guy that we all love and hate at the same time, like Benjamin Linus on Lost or Rommel the famous German WWII general. Its difficult to know the right historical perspective that we should take or if there even is one. How should we view him historically? I'm still not sure. However, I am sure that Herod the Great is one of my favorite historical figures to study and this short paper was one of my favorite projects so far.

This paper will seek to summarize the growth of Herod the Great’s kingdom in Judea. This will be accomplished by chronicling the following phases: the end of the Hasmonean Kingdom (67-37 BCE), Herod’s formation of a kingdom (37-25 BCE), and Herod’s peaceful kingdom (25-13 BCE). Since the focus is on the growth aspect of Herod’s kingdom this paper will not discuss the later degeneration of Herod’s kingdom, instead it will focus on the surrounding events that enabled the growth of his kingdom. Herod received territory from Rome on four different occasions (40, 30, 23, 20 BCE) these dates will be discussed within their larger historical context in the kingdom of Judea. The events to be discussed are largely reconstructed by historians from the writings of Flavius Josephus whose source for much of the material from the latter part of the Hasmonean kingdom unto Herod the Great’s kingdom was Herod’s own court scribe, Nicholas of Damascus.¹ Though Josephus writes over a century later (c. 95 CE) from Rome the events he describes pertaining to the period in question are particularly detailed, evidencing close adherence to his source material. In order to properly understand the rise of Herod’s kingdom it is necessary to briefly discuss the preceding local events of the dying Hasmonean Kingdom and the contemporaneous global events of the Roman Empire.

The End of the Hasmonean Kingdom (67 – 37 BCE)

The once proud and growing Hasmonean kingdom suffered a bloody suicide at the hands of its last two autonomous kings, John Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. These two brothers, the sons of Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BCE) and Alexandra Salome (76-67 BCE), waged a brutal civil war against one another calling upon the foreign armies of Rome (Pompey) and Nabatea (Aretas) to fight their battles, in so doing they surrendered much of their empire.² Cunningly, Pompey played off of the sibling rivalry and managed to incorporate the former Hasmonean kingdom into the Roman Empire and installed John Hyrcanus II as the designated ethnarc (leader of ethnic group) of the Jewish people and high priest.³ Josephus also writes that Pompey further divided the kingdom by giving Syria a number of cities⁴ that had been conquered by the Hasmonean dynasty. Avi-Yonah comments on the effect of the loss of these important cities this way, “Pompey split up the country (the Hasmoneans) had united, separated the areas inhabited by the Jews into two, cut Judah off from access to the sea and encircled it with a belt of Greek cities.”⁵

The remaining seed of the Hasmoneans lead several insurrections that were beaten down by Roman forces. This resulted in the consolidation of power by Gabinus, Pompey’s general in Syria, who divided the land into five districts: Judea, Perea, the Jordan Valley, Galilee, and Idumea under the headship of Hyrcanus II⁶ During this consolidation Antipater II, an Idumean, became the governor of Idumea. Antipater’s father Antipater I had been a high-ranking official to John Hyrcanus I and had wisely married his son to Cypros, a Nabatean princess.⁷

Genealogy chart of the Hasmonean Dynasty.⁸

While these local shifts of power were occurring, a massive global shift was occurring in the form of the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the first Caesars. A civil war had broken out between Rome’s two leaders, Julius Caesar and Pompey, which lead to the death of Pompey (48 BCE) in Alexandria and the rise of Julius Caesar to supreme ruler of the Roman Empire. Initially Antipater aligned himself with Pompey, but after Pompey’s death he switched his allegiance to Caesar and displayed it by joining a relief force led by Mithradates from Pergamum that helped Julius Caesar crush his adversaries in Egypt. Afterward Caesar would repay this kindness to Antipater by bestowing Roman citizenship upon him and promoting him to procurator of Judea. Antipater would use this position to his advantage by placing two of his sons as governors, Phasael over Judea and Herod⁹ over Galilee.¹⁰

There appointment immediately caused hostility with the Jewish subjects, particularly the Sanhedrin, who saw Antipater and his sons as foreign rulers, despite their forced conversion to Judaism a century earlier. This hostility intensified when Herod ignored the Sanhedrin’s judicial power by capturing and executing a group of rebels in Galilee. After this injustice the Sanhedrin sought to punish Herod, but were warned to not touch Herod by Sextus Caesar, governor of Syria. In the end Herod was able to sidestep physical punishment, however, his father, Antipater, was murdered shortly after by Malichus, a Jerusalem aristocrat in 42 BCE. Over the next two years the Jewish leaders sought to have Herod removed from power, but were denied by Rome, because of the previous loyalty of Antipater.¹¹ During the interlude between Antipater and Herod, Antigonus, son of Aristobulus II, allied himself with Parthian troops to kick out the sons of Antipater and those loyal to Rome. Hyrcanus betrothed his granddaughter Mariamne to Herod, who now had favor from parts of the remaining Hasmonean kingdom. In the ensuing war Antigonus succeeded in disposing of Phasael and Hyrcanus II¹² and established a brief kingdom for himself that was backed by the Parthians. Herod looked to Rome for salvation and received it in the form of Mark Antony and Octavian giving him the whole of the kingdom of Judea. Herod returned and began to re-conquer Judea (39-37 BCE), culminating in the siege and capture of Jerusalem with the help of Roman forces led by Sossius. Subsequently, Antigonus was executed and the Hasmonean Kingdom and lineage was destroyed. Although Herod tried to legitimize his claims to the Hasmonean lineage by marrying Mariamne, the Hasmonean princess, during the siege of Jerusalem, in so doing he entered the city as the “heir” of the Hasmonean line.¹³

Genealogy chart of the Herodian dynasty.¹⁴

Herod’s Formation of a Kingdom (37 B.C.E – 25 B.C.E.)

After establishing his rule in Jerusalem Herod became increasingly afraid of opponents and began taking action against those who “might” oppose him. He returned his elderly father-in-law Hyrcanus II out of exile and gave him a high-ranking position and promoted Hananel, a Babylonian Jew, to the position of high priest. At this news Herod’s Hasmonean in-laws became enraged, particularly Alexandra (mother of Mariamne and daughter of Hyrcanus II), because Aristobulus III was of the age to become the next high priest. Herod gave into their desire and made Aristobulus III high priest.¹⁵ However, it was a short-lived term, Herod upon becoming jealous of the people’s affections for his brother-in-law subsequently had him drowned in his Jericho palace’s swimming pool. Upon hearing of her son’s death Alexandra brought charges to Antony against Herod through Cleopatra, however, Antony exonerated Herod of charges. The political triangle of Herod, Cleopatra, and Antony is very intriguing and shaped the Herod’s kingdom during this period. Cleopatra sought to add to her considerable kingdom the regions of Judea and Arabia from Herod and Malchus king of Nabatea respectively. She used her “influence” over Antony to gain her own ends and succeeded in adding the coastal regions and the area around the Dead Sea given to Herod in 40 BCE. Herod was able to recoup the loss of his territory by leasing the area around the Dead Sea and Jericho from Cleopatra for 200 talents a year and by serving as guarantee for the tributes of Malchus king of Nabatea. This uneasy peace between Cleopatra and Herod remained the political climate for a few years until war broke out in 31 BCE between Octavian and Antony. Herod was under compulsion to fight for Antony, and even offered his services, however, the Nabateans had failed to bring tribute to Cleopatra and Antony advised Herod to take care of the Nabateans first. This proved to be Herod’s “saving grace” since Antony was defeated at Actium. Although Herod had not openly fought against Octavian he had certainly allied himself with Antony and now would have to repair his relationship with the new Roman ruler. The subsequent events would prove to be the defining moments of Herod’s life and rule over Judea.¹⁶

Herod finished his campaign in Transjordan by succeeding in subduing the Nabateans and bringing them into his kingdom. His next step was to execute his traitorous father-in-law, Hyrcanus II, who had sought to go over to the Nabatean side while he was at war with them. Next he sailed to Rhodes in order to make amends with Octavian the new ruler of Rome. Herod made his case before Octavian by claiming that he continue to be loyal to Rome as he had been loyal to Antony, the local Roman ruler within his vicinity. Octavian in response to this declaration reestablished Herod’s kingdom, returned the territory taken by Cleopatra, and gave him the Greek cities of Gadara, Hippus, Samaria, Gaza, Anthedon, Joppa, and Strato’s Tower (as seen on map).¹⁷ Avi-Yonah speaks of the importance of Herod adding these Greek cities to his kingdom in this manner, “Herod must have understood by then that all his attempts to obtain the favor of his Jewish subjects would be in vain. A strengthening of the Hellenized population in the kingdom would, therefore, strengthen somewhat the foundations of his rule.”¹⁸ This second land bequest from Rome made Herod stronger than ever by giving him unrestricted access to the sea where the site of Strato’s Tower would become very important in the upcoming years. On this political coup Hohlfelder writes, “In a diplomatic stroke Herod not only saved his own life, persuading Rome’s new master that he would be a dependable client king, but he also acquired new territory on the coast of Judea and Samaria.”¹⁹ Despite the relative security found at the hand of Octavian, Herod still found himself in danger from his Hasmonean in-laws among others. Herod began a killing spree that included: Alexandra his mother-in-law, Costobar his ex-brother-in-law (ex-husband of Salome), and Mariamne his favorite wife. The execution of Mariamne caused major fallout for Herod. He would mourn her until he died and was forced to ruthlessly execute his two sons by her, Alexander and Aristobulus.²⁰ Levine summarizes the effect of the execution of Mariamne like this,
“The specter of Mariamne returned to haunt Herod during the last decade of his life. His sons by her, Alexander and Aristobulus, could not forgive their father for this deed, and the tensions and intrigues in Herod’s court became unbearable and ultimately proved disastrous. The irony of events was such that Herod’s political fortunes were on the rise while his personal life was the scene of much anguish and pain.”²¹

^{The Growth of Herod's Kingdom 22}

Herod’s Peaceful Kingdom (27 B.C.E – 13 B.C.E.)

This period marked the golden era of Herod’s reign and is the main reason why he is known as “the Great.” The kingdom of Judea experienced relative peace and prosperity over this fourteen-year period as Herod began a colossal building career and saw his territory further expanded by Octavian (now known as Augustus) on two different occasions. Both of these expansions, occurring in 23 BCE and 20 BCE respectively, were within the regions of the Golan Heights, Huleh Basin, and Bashan (known in the time of Herod as the regions of Gaulanitis, Batanea, Auranitis, and Trachonitis). The kingdom of the Itureans formerly ruled these regions until Antony killed their last king in 35 BCE. Since then Zenodorus, the tetrarch of Syria, had ruled over the regions, but had allowed the area to be overrun with brigands and was even profiting from their piracy. In response to this Augustus transferred the regions of Trachonitis, Batanea, and Auranitis to Herod’s kingdom in 23 BCE. Upon Zenodorus’ death three years later Augustus gave Herod the remainder of Zenodorus’ kingdom, the region of Gaulanitis, which included the city of Paneas (later known as Caesarea-Philippi). Herod’s dominion had now stretched to Davidic proportions, nearly reaching from Dan to Beersheba.²³

Map of Herod’s Kingdom at its peak.²⁴

Besides the expansion of his kingdom, Herod used these fourteen years of peace to develop perhaps the most prestigious building resume this world has ever known. The most celebrated of these building expeditions include: the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron, and the Palace-Fortress of Masada in the Judean Wilderness.²⁵ Discussing these projects and the many others that Herod undertook is beyond the focus of this discussion. So in an effort to understand the reasons that Herod undertook these projects one may look to possibly the greatest of all of Herod’s building projects, Caesarea.²⁶ The site of Caesarea was built in 12 years (from 22 -10/9 BCE)²⁷ encompassing an area of over 200,000 square yards (of which only 4% has been excavated).²⁸ It was one of the four largest Mediterranean harbors of its time.²⁹
On Herod’s purposes of building Caesarea Holum writes,
“Herod no doubt built this great harbor to satisfy a practical need, for there was no sheltered anchorage along the route from Alexandria, in Egypt, to the ports of Syria and Asia Minor. Herod also expected to bring in a nice profit from harbor tolls and customs that would help finance his building schemes. Yet there was another element at work as well, as noted by Josephus. The historian appears to have recorded the exact language of Nicholas of Damascus, a contemporary of Herod and a member of the royal court – the minister of propaganda, in effect. Josephus (and Nicholas) wrote that Herod built harbor in order to display the “innate greatness of his character” and because, in thrusting the massive breakwaters far out into the sea, the king displayed the ambition to ‘conquer nature herself.’”³⁰

Caesarea like the rest of Herod’s kingdom was built with a western orientation. That is to say everything he did/built was meant to reflect his adoration of the Roman Empire while establishing his own considerable niche within it. Even the temple mount complex in Jerusalem with its necessary Jewish peculiarities (i.e. court of the Gentiles, eastern orientation, etc.) was meant to draw awe from his western inferiors, peers, and superiors. The port city of Caesarea perhaps best displays Herod’s inclinations. His massive temple³¹ has a pronaos (front porch) that is westward oriented toward Rome.³² Moreover, the theatre at Caesarea unlike other theatres throughout Judea and the Decapolis is western oriented.³³ Caesarea was Herod’s lighthouse and memorial to the Roman world, which had given him his kingdom.

Herod’s ambitious building projects attest to his ambitious, thoroughly Roman attitude. He carved out for himself an empire of his own making and liking, despite his placement in the remote region of Judea. In some he ways his outlook can be compared to the outlook the founders of the Roman republic. Reid comments on the humble beginnings of the early Romans this way, “They started out as a tiny backwater in Mediterranean world dominated by city-states - and eventually took that world, and all its great cities, under their own dominion.”³⁴ Likewise Herod started out from a relatively unimportant family and road to prominence upon the backs of Providence and amazing political and engineering abilities. However, Herod’s private life was anything but peaceful, and he ultimately ended his life alone and afraid of losing what he had built.

Geopolitical Chronology³⁵

ROME - Roman Republic 509 to 127–27 BCE - Roman Empire 27 BCE to 310 CE

Events:

• Pompey killed in Alexandria 48 BCE
• Julius Caesar assassinated 44 BCE
• Mark Antony defeated at Actium 31 BCE

Rulers:

• Julius Caesar 45 to 44 BCE
• Augustus, Octavius 27 BCE to 14 CE (Luke 2:1)

Sources:

• Flavius Josephus 95 CE

GREECE - Roman Empire 146 BCE to 395 CE

ASIA (ANATOLIA) - Roman Empire 133–67 BCE to 395 CE

PERSIA - Parthian Empire 238 BCE to 224 CE

MESOPOTAMIA - Parthian Empire ca. 150 BCE to ca. 224 CE

ARAM (SYRIA) - Roman Empire 64 BCE to 400 CE

ISRAEL/JUDEA - Roman Empire 63 BCE to 400 CE

Events:

• Second Temple Rebuilt, Herod’s Temple 20/19 BCE to 62–64 CE

Contemporary Sources:

• Dead Sea Scrolls ca. 250 BCE to 67 CE

Historical Figures:

• Paul, Saul 10 BCE to 67–68 CE (Acts-Philemon)
• John the Baptist 6/5 BCE to 31 CE (Matt. 3:1-6; 11:2-15; 14:1-12; Mark 1:2-6; 8:28; Luke 3:3-6; 9:7-9; John 1)
• Jesus, Christ 5/4 BCE to 33 CE (Matthew-John)
• Hyrcanus II 63 to 40 BCE
• Herod the Great 37 to 4 BCE

EGYPT - Ptolemaic Period 323 to 30 BCE - Roman Empire 30 BCE to 395 CE

Events:

• Julius Caesar in Egypt 48 to 47 BCE
• Cleopatra in Rome 46 to 44 BCE
• Cleopatra Marries Marc Antony 37 BCE
• Octavian Enters Alexandria 30 BCE

Pharaohs:

• Cleopatra VII 52 to 30 BCE

Endnotes

1. Louis Feldman, “Josephus,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., ed. by David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 3:981.
2. Anson Rainey and Steve Notley, The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s Atlas of the Biblical World. Carta: Jerusalem, 2006, 334-337.
3. Anson Rainey and Steve Notley, 336.
4. Gadara, Hippus, Scythopolis, Pella, Dium, Samaria, Marisa, Azotus, Jamnia, Arethusa, Gaza, Joppa, Dora, and Strato’s Tower (Ant. 14:75-76; War 1:156-157).
5. Michael Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land. A Historical Geography from the Persian Period to the Arab Conquest (586 B.C. to 640 A.D.), Grand Rapids: Baker, 1966, 1977, 79.
6. Rainey and Notley, 336.
7. Lee I. Levine, “Herod the Great,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., ed. by David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 3:161-169.
8. David Braund, “The Herodian Dynasty,” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., ed. by David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 3:161-169.
9. Herod was about 25 at the time of his appointment (born in the late 70’s B.C.E.) Ibid, 3:161-169.
10. Adapted from Rainey and Notley, 337.
11. Levine, 3:161-169.
12. Antigonus disqualified Hyrcanus from the priesthood by mutilating his ear (Ant. 14:366) (Lev. 21:17-23).
13. Adapted from Anson Rainey and Steve Notley, 337-339.
14. Braund, 3:161-169.
15. He did this under pressure from Cleopatra whom Alexandra had appealed too. Rainey and Notley, 342.
16. Adapted from Rainey and Notley, 342-343 and Levine, 3:161-169.
17. Ant. 14:75; 15:294; 15:217.
18. Avi-Yonah, 89-90.
19. It included the strip of land where the ruins of a Phoenician settlement (known as “Strato’s Tower”) stood, together with and an ancient roadstead. On this site Herod would establish Caesarea a city majestic enough to impress even an emperor of Rome.
20. Adapted from Rainey and Notley, 342-343 and Levine, 3:161-169.
21. Levine, 161-169.
22. Rainey and Notley, 343.
23. Adapted from Rainey and Notley, 343 and Levine, 161-169.
24. Accordance Bible Atlas, Version 2, Map Backgrounds and data copyright 2006, 2008 OakTree Software, Inc. Map Data prepared by Greg Ward and David Lang.
25. For more information on Herod’s building projects refer to Ehud Netzer, “Herod’s Building Program” The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols., ed. by David Noel Freedman, (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 3:161-169.
26. The importance of Caesarea from an archaeological perspective cannot be underestimated. It is a vital key in understanding maritime trade and harbor engineering in the Roman period. It is the only ancient port from the period that is open to archaeology, unlike Rome’s Portus, which is under an airport, Leptis Magna in Libya, which is silted in, Alexandria in Egypt and Piraeus in Athens, which are both still operational. Robert L. Hohlfelder, “Herod the Great’s City on the Sea – Caesarea Maritima,” National Geographic Magazine 171/2 (1987): 273.
27. Yosef Porat, “Vegas on the Med: A Tour of Caesarea’s Entertainment District,” BAR 30/5 (2004): 26.
28. Porat, 33.
29. Hohlfelder, 271.
30. Kenneth G. Holum, “Building Power: The Politics of Architecture,” BAR 30/5 (2004): 35.
31. Dedicated to Augustus, named Sebastos, which is a Greek translation of Augustus. Apparently the harbor (Sebastos) and the city (Caesarea) had separate names – the harbor belonging to the emperor and Rome although still accessible to the city. Kenneth G. Holum, “Caesarea’s Temple Hill,” Near Eastern Archaeology 67/4 (2004): 190.
32. Holum, 57.
33. Theatres were generally eastern oriented in order to catch the falling western sunlight at sunset.
34. T.R. Reid, “The World According to Rome,” National Geographic Magazine 192/2 (1997): 82.
35. Adapted from Accordance Bible Timeline, Data copyright 2006, 2008 OakTree Software, Inc. Map Data prepared by David Lang.

Bibliography

Aharoni, Yohanan and Avi-Yonah, Micael. The Carta Bible Atlas. 4th ed. Carta: Jerusalem, 2002.

Avi-Yonah, Michael. The Holy Land. A Historical Geography from the Persian Period to the Arab Conquest (586 B.C. to 640 A.D.). Baker: Grand Rapids, 1966, 1977.

Braund, David. “The Herodion Dynasty.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Feldman, Louis. “Josephus.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Gracey, M.H. “Herodion Army.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992

Hammond, Philip. “New Light on the Nabataeans.” BAR 30/5 (2004): 24-35,57.

Hohlfelder, Robert. “Herod the Great’s City on the Sea – Caesarea Maritima.” National Geographic Magazine 171/2 (1987): 260-279.

Holum, Kenneth. “Caesarea’s Temple Hill.” Near Eastern Archaeology 67/4 (2004): 184-199.

______. “Building Power: The Politics of Architecture.” BAR 30/5 (2004): 24-35,57.

Levine, Lee. “Herod the Great.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Netzer, Ehud. “Herod’s Building Program.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

______. “Herodium.” The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1992.

Porat, Yosef. “Vegas on the Med: A Tour of Caesarea’s Entertainment District.” BAR 30/5 (2004): 24-35.

Rainey, Anson and Notley, Steve. The Sacred Bridge: Carta’s Atlas of the Biblical World. Carta: Jerusalem, 2006.

Rasmussen, Carl. Zondervan NIV Atlas of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.

Reid, T.R. “The World According to Rome.” National Geographic Magazine 192/2 (1997): 54-83.